Introduction and Background
History teaches us that no society or community is static and that migration is a natural human behavior dating back to the origin of humanity. From the ages of nomadic tribes to today’s expatriates, we see a constant thread of human mobility weaving through the fabric of human existence. In his work, “Europe on the Move: War and Population Changes 1917-1947”, Eugene Kulischer observes that migratory movement is endless, partial, and universal. He notes that migration has a ripple effect on everybody and reiterates that there is never a moment of immobility since no migration occurs in isolation (Ali et al., 2017). Migration can be forced or voluntary, depending on the push or pull factors. Modern-day migrations are instigated by pull factors broadly categorized into economic, social, political and environmental factors. The 2019 report by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) reveals that the initiation of free movement and free trade by regional organizations such as the European Union and the East African Community has also contributed to a great extent cross-border migration. This is because migrants are assured of enjoying similar rights and freedoms as the citizens of host countries (OECD, 2019).
Additionally, studies by Zolberg et al. reveal that factors affecting push migration include religious persecution, conflicts/wars, drought and starvation (Zolberg et al., 1989). This is corroborated by the 2010 study conducted by the HORN Institute, which reveals that the major driving force of human migration and refugee movement is violent conflicts, eco-systemic disasters occasioned by climate change (drought, floods, and heat waves), oppression, and persecutions also compel people to migrate (HORN, 2010).
One of the critical challenges in migration research is lack of adequate data, which impedes scholars from carrying out holistic study. This data gap frequently leads to disproportionate focus on refugees and ignorance on other immigrants who equally leave their home countries for various reasons. The notion that refugees are fundamentally different from other immigrants has also exacerbated this matter. However, Kogan and Kalter have advocated for overcoming this lacuna, arguing that refugee migration is a form of migration with integration patterns similar to other types of immigration (Kogan & Kalter, 2020). This treatise adopts a similar view in analyzing the intricate dynamics of refugees, migrations and human mobility in Africa.
Brankamp emphasizes that the notion that immigrants burden the host country is unfounded. He explains that free trade and the movement of people have demonstrated to the world that migrants benefit most economies (Brankamp, 2022). Castles et al. concur with Brankamp and postulate that given humane treatment, unrestricted freedoms and rights, immigrants contribute immensely to the growth of economies. They support the developing and declining sectors of the economy by making the labor markets more flexible. Migration boosts the age of the working population, and host countries benefit a lot from the new skills brought in by the migrants to improve their economies. More importantly, that migrants contribute more to revenue collection than the benefits they obtain from the host countries (Castles et al., 2014).
Sub-Saharan Africa has been marred by unending armed conflicts over the past two decades, resulting in a massive movement of refugees. The Horn of Africa is also a victim of armed conflicts, with countries such as Sudan, Ethiopia, and Somalia experiencing the risk of armed conflicts, leading to the inflow and outflow of refugees to neighboring countries (HORN, 2010). Kenya has been on the receiving end due to the refugee influx experienced over the past three decades. In response to the unending conflicts in the region, the UNHCR established the Kakuma refugee camp in 1992 (Ali et al., 2017).
To put the findings into perspective and bring out the knowledge lacuna, this article adopts a qualitative case study methodology and is anchored on Jorgen Carling’s capabilities and aspirations theory of migrations, which explores the role of aspirations in the migration process. The theory posits that people’s desire to migrate is the work of their general life aspirations and their perceived geographical opportunity construction (Carling & Collins, 2020). In addition, people’s capabilities to migrate are dependent on both positive (“freedom to”) and negative (‘freedom from”) liberties. Capabilities and aspirations theory assumes that migration desires the general life preferences of people. That migration reflects people’s subjective perceptions of opportunities and life elsewhere. Therefore, the factors that affect life in general alongside distinct migration desires are tendencies of a person to act in a particular manner, information, learning, identification, culture, and what people see most of the time. Desires, however ideally specific, are actually dependent on abilities (Carling & Collins, 2020). Increasing capabilities can also increase aspirations. The capacity to which substituting preference results in migration desires, however, depends on the extent to which individuals regard that their personal needs and wants can be locally met.
The capabilities and aspirations theory of migration provides a valuable framework for understanding motivations and constraints influencing migration. By bringing together aspirations and capabilities, the theory provided an understanding of why people choose to migrate (Carling, 2014). The theory highlights a person’s subjective perceptions of opportunities and life in various places, which is critical in understanding how migrants view their present situation versus their aspirations.
An overview of Kakuma refugee camp
The History of Kakuma Refugee Camp dates back to 1992 when, among other refugee camps, it was established by the UNHCR to meet the growing number of refugees fleeing their home countries into Kenya. Located in the North Western region of Kenya, the camp is home to over 260,000 refugees as of 2024 according to the UNHCR database (UNHCR, 2024). While the camp was initially intended to host the “Lost Boys of Sudan,” a group of young boys who fled the civil war in Sudan, the camp currently hosts a considerable proportion of refugees from Ethiopia, Djibouti, Rwanda, Uganda, Tanzania, Somalia, Burundi, and the DRC, hosting close to 21% of the total refugees in Kenya. The significant rise in population has been exacerbated by ongoing conflicts, economic hardships, pandemics and environmental factors in the refugees’ home countries, leading to significant congestion and strain on resources within the camp (UNHCR, 2024).
Kakuma Refugee Camp
Source: OPEC Fund for International Development
Kakuma refugee camp has progressively developed into a semi-permanent settlement where refugees and migrants can access essential services such as education, healthcare, and vocational training. The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees jointly manages the camp in collaboration with the Kenyan government and various non-governmental organizations (UNHCR, 2020).
Refugees and their country of origin as of 2024
State Number of Refugees Percentage
Uganda 2,800 1.1%
Somalia 39,500 15.2%
Ethiopia 12,000 4.6%
Sudan 11,000 4.2%
DRC 20,000 7.7%
South Sudan 142,000 54.6%
Others 33,700 12.9%
Source: UNHCR (2024).
The COVID-19 pandemic affected the global economy, and consequently, many people in the Horn of Africa faced hunger and a lack of basic needs, prompting them to seek refuge in camps like Kakuma. The pandemic exposed human life to danger, leading to many people relocating to safer places, thereby increasing the number of refugees in 2021 and 2022 (McAuliffe et al., 2022)
Source: UNHCR (2024).
a. The dynamics of refugees, migrations and human mobility in Africa
Many people are faced with the difficult decision of leaving their homes, either permanently or temporarily, in pursuit of a safer and better life across Africa. The decision to migrate brings with it sad experiences that eventually permanently affects the lives of the immigrants and refugees. For most immigrants and refugees, the migration journey across Africa is perilous characterized by accidents, injuries, musculoskeletal disorders and violence (IOM, 2020). Other immigrants and refugees also have tales of getting exposed to ill health due to several risk factors during their journey, leading to compulsory medical screening at the borders of the African countries they would like to settle. These mandatory medical screenings often create significant worries for immigrants, as failure to pass them may result in entry denial in the African country where the immigrants and refugees choose to settle. COVID-19 and Monkeypox tests are among the mandatory screenings that denied many migrants and refugees entry into many African countries and others around the world (WHO, 2021).
Other immigrants and refugees across Africa have to deal with harsh environmental conditions, physical threats, absence of most basic commodities and services, and long-term subjection to violence and trauma during their movements. Such experiences result in significant impact on the mental health of immigrants (Fazel, Wheeler, & Danesh, 2005). Additionally, upon reaching the host African countries, immigrants and refugees are forced to take up menial jobs in the agricultural sector, mining and construction sectors to provide for themselves and their dependents, exposing them to occupational hazards in their work areas (Moyce & Schenker, 2018). Other immigrants and refugees are exposed to the risks of sexual harassment and exploitation while some undergo harrowing experiences like the audacious crossing of African water bodies in small boats and canoes. In their voyage, such refugees and immigrants, most of whom have no experience with water transport, die or lose loved ones when their boats and canoes capsize. Sometimes, they are stranded without food and other basic amenities due to rough waters and poor weather (UNHCR, 2020). Many migrants and refugees also end up in the hands of smugglers and militias during their migratory journeys across Africa, who sell them into slavery, preventing them from achieving their dreams of a better life (Van Liempt & Sersli, 2013).
Moreover, some refugees and immigrants endure walking long distances across African deserts without water, food or shelter. They get exposed to the vagaries of weather, with some ending up dead from dehydration and emaciation, while the few who make it suffer physical injuries and mental trauma (MSF, 2017).
b. Challenges faced by refugees in Kakuma refugee camp
Refugee preference for Kenya and Kakuma camp is due to its politic
al stability, strategic geographical location, economic opportunities, and international organizations supporting them. Kenya is renowned for its political stability and democratic values governed by a robust constitution. Those interviewed at the Department of Refugees revealed that Kenya possesses an open-door policy whereby asylum seekers or refugees are allowed into the state through official borders, ensuring a safe haven for those seeking protection.
In as much as migrants and refugees aspire to move to host countries like Kenya for better lives, there is no guarantee that the intended host country will meet their expectations. Among the challenges refugees face at Kakuma as revealed by this article is the tightening of migration controls and vilification by border security officers, often under the pretext of belonging. These tight measures restrain refugees at the border from accessing the camps hence subjecting them to depression and frustrations. The refugees interviewed explained that fleeing from troubles and coming to another set of undefined issues subjected them to traumatic experiences at Kakuma.
The interviewees at Kakuma talked about growing anger and fear, coupled with hatred and lack of empathy from Kenyan citizens in the North leading to their poor reception. Moreover, some refugees complained of the camp management painting them as being out of control hence the hostility and unnecessary scrutiny, which leave them in the state of uncertainty.
Other interviewed refugees from Somalia, Ethiopia and Sudan talked of sporadic raids conducted in their tents by camp authorities under the disguise of clearing the camp of the suspected Al-Shabaab militia. As a result, some of them are ejected from the midst of other refugees, making their lives more miserable.
Interviewees also pointed out segregation campaigns targeting them with strict regulations such as those requiring them to demonstrate their necessity to live in Kakuma refugee camp. They gave their account of COVID-19 pandemic experience where they were forced to show their Covid-19 certificates or undergo a mandatory COVID-19 screening, an exercise that was too expensive for them to afford, leaving them stranded and at the mercies of the camp management.
The notion that refugees are a threat to social cohesion and economic stability aggravates discrimination and xenophobic attitudes (European Commission, 2020). Governments must have an obligation to put favourable regulations that protect the rights and freedoms of migrants and refugees. They should also be obliged to grant warm reception to migrants and treat them with humanity and dignity (UNHCR, 2020). Governments should also create inclusive policies that promote integration and social cohesion to help mitigate the negative impacts of anti-immigration sentiments. In addition, public awareness campaigns emphasizing the positive contributions of migrants to society and the economy can encourage empathy and reduce prejudice.
c. Measures taken by Kenyan Government to address challenges faced by refugees in Kakuma refugee camp.
There has been tremendous effort by the Kenyan Government to ensure refugees are treated humanely and with dignity. The Kenya Refugee Act, which came into force in 2022, reiterates the unwavering commitment by the government of Kenya to protect and empower refugees. This act has brought progressive changes in policies on refugee economic inclusion, refugee status determination, and integration into Kenya’s national and local economy. The Act provides that refugees “shall have the right to engage individually or in a group, in gainful employment or enterprise or to practice a profession or trade where he/she holds qualifications recognized by competent authorities of Kenya.” (Government of Kenya, 2022).
In addition, the novel Act describes refugee residences as “designated areas” rather than camps. The “designated areas” under the new Act are “any reception area, transit point or settlement areas as may be declared by the Cabinet Secretary.” The Act equally grants total freedom to refugees from the East Africa Community the option to benefit from the rights accorded by the EAC Treaty and Protocol. Meaning, refugees from EAC member countries (Uganda, Tanzania, Rwanda, Burundi, Democratic Republic of Congo, and South Sudan) are treated as EAC citizens, allowing them to move freely, live, and work in Kenya with a work permit. Finally, the new Act also provides that new Refugee Identity Card will have same standing as the Foreign Registration Certificate popularly known as “Alien Card” (Government of Kenya, 2022).
There also exists Encampment Policy which refugees should take advantage of. The Encampment Policy of Kenya grants refugees essential services such as food, shelter, education, healthcare, water and sanitation, reducing the need to move outside Kakuma refugee camp. The services are provided and funded by the National and county governments, local and international NGOs.
Freedom of movement is guaranteed and mobility within and outside the camp is encouraged as it highlights Kenya’s efforts to balance the restrictions of the encampment policy with the needs and rights of refugees to move for legitimate reasons. The camp management and the Kenyan government grant refugees freedom of movement, facilitated by several factors, including economic activities such as trade to enable development and improve refugee living standards. Education is another factor that facilitates the mobility of refugees outside the camp as individuals who thrive in academics are allowed to join higher learning institutions and travel to different places within the country to learn.
Conclusion
Migration dynamics have changed in the 21st century and this change will extend into the future. This article meticulously reveals the intricate dynamics of refugees, migrations and human mobility across Africa using Kakuma refugee camp in Kenya as a case study. The findings unearthed the grim reality of the perilous journeys marred by violence, harsh environmental conditions, life-threatening conditions and exploitation that migrants and refugees are forced to undertake in pursuit of better lives and futures. Refugees and migrants not only face challenges in the course of their journeys but also upon arriving into their host countries. In Kenya’s Kakuma refugee camp, refugees battle discrimination, restrictive migratory controls, lack of empathy from the communities around the camp, prejudice, poor reception, and psychological challenges. Despite the difficulties experienced by the refugees and migrants into Kenya, the government together with other partners have made significant efforts to address the needs of refugees. The enactment into law of Kenya Refugee Act, 2022, which anchors the rights and freedoms of refugees like integration into national economy, free mobility and economic inclusion, shows the commitment put by the Kenyan government to meet the needs of refugees and migrants. However, more still need to be done by the government to ensure good living conditions and overall well-being of refugees in Kakuma.
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